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The Beloved Women (Ghigua) were chosen by each clan to attend the Council of Women yearly. They were chosen for their bravery in battle or outstanding qualities, and it was the highest honor they could receive. The Ghigua headed the Council of Women and held a voting seat in the Council of Chiefs. The Ghigua was given the responsibility of prisoners and would decide their fate. She also had the right to be her people's sage and guide. Another of the Beloved Woman's duties was as ambassador, or peace negotiator

A day or two after the birth, a priest waved the infant four times over a fire while he addressed on its behalf a prayer to the fire for special blessings. On either the fourth or seventh day after birth, the same priest took the child to a river and commended it to its Creator, praying that it might enjoy a long and happy life. After this, while holding his hand over the infant's mouth and nostrils, he quickly immersed it seven times, then returned it to its parents Then the naming ceremony was held, and the name was bestowed by a prominent elderly woman of the community such as one of the Beloved Women. In most cases, the name was based on the infant's fancied resemblance to some object, on something said or done at the moment of birth, or an unusual character trait in the infant. Later in life, depending on a person's character changes or achievements, a new name might be earned or give. For example, a Cherokee warrior who killed a distinguished enemy , in a public ceremony , be given the name "Buffalo Killer". Whatever the name, every Cherokee regarded it as a distinct part of his/her personality, and believed that injury would result from any misuse of it. If, for instance, a priest's prayers had no effect while he was treating a patent, he often concluded that misuse of the patent's name was the cause and accordingly went to water where, with appropriate ceremonies, he christened the patient with a new name. The priest then began his healing ritual. Daily immersion of the child continued for two years. At the age of four or five, boys came under the supervision of their fathers or elder brothers and were taught how to handle weapons. Girls helped their mothers and older sisters and learned by doing. Both sexes learned rapidly and played games in which the activities of the elders were imitated. A child born in the midst of unusual circumstances, such as when strange things were happening on earth or in the heavens, might be raised to become a visionary or prophet, and such a career was particularly marked out for twins. Selected children such as these were kept secluded during the first twenty-four days of their lives. They were not allowed to taste their mother's milk, but instead were given the liquid portion of corn hominy. While such children were growing up, they were encouraged to go out alone and talk with the Little People Some sons were promised to the priesthood, and on acceptance by the priests were called "devoted sons". The training for priesthood was more demanding than for hunting.  The priesthood was to some extent hereditary, but there was also a selective process. The priests were advised in advance when a new candidate was to be presented to them. Before the presentation, the parents fasted and for seven days tasted only a certain root to vicariously bestow special powers on the child. To preserve the purity of children devoted to priesthood, mothers always delivered them into the care of the grandmother or some aged matron during the mother's periods of menstruation

The little people

The everyday cultural world of the Cherokee includes spiritual beings.  Even though the beings are different from people and animals, they are not considered "supernatural."  They are very much a part of the natural, or real, world and most people at some point in their lives, have an experience with spiritual beings. One group of spiritual beings still talked about by many Cherokees, are the Little People.  They are invisible unless they want to be seen.  When seen, they look very much like any other Cherokee, except they are very small, and have long hair, sometimes to the ground The Little People live in various places, such as rock shelters, caves in the mountains, laurel thickets, etc.  They like drumming and dancing, and they often help lost children.  Not only physically lost, but sometimes saddened children and those who are going through the tough times of growing up.  They are also known to be quite mischievous at times.  The Little People need to be dealt with carefully, and it is necessary to observe the traditional rules regarding them.  They don?t like to be disturbed, and they may cause a person who continually bothers them to become 'puzzled' throughout life.  Because of this, traditional Cherokees will not investigate or look when they believe they hear Little People.  If one of the Little People is accidentally seen, or if he or she chooses to show himself, it is not to be discussed or told of for at least seven years. It is also a common practice to not speak about the Little People after night fall

The raven mocker

The most dreaded of all Cherokee witches is the Raven Mocker, who robs the dying of their life.  A Raven Mocker can be of either sex, and there is no real way to know one.  They usually look old and withered, because they have added so many lives to their own During the night when someone is sick or dying, the Raven Mocker goes there to take the life.  He flies through the air with his arms outstretched like wings.  There will be a wild wind noise around him, and sparks trailing from behind.  Every once in awhile he will dive, and make a sound similar to a raven?s cry.  All those who hear it are afraid, because they know that someone?s life will soon end.  When the Raven Mocker makes it to the dying person?s house, he often finds others of his kind there.  Unless there is an Cherokee Doctor watching out who knows how to drive them off, they will all go inside (they are invisible) and frighten and torment the sick person until they kill him.  Sometimes, those who are attending the sick think the person is just fighting for their breath. After the witches take the life, they take out his heart and eat it, and by doing this, they add to their own lives as many days or years as they have taken from his.  Nobody who is attending the sick can see them, and there is no scar where they have removed the heart.  Upon further examination, they will find that there is no heart left in the body. Only a medicine person with the right kind of medicine can recognize a Raven Mocker, and if that medicine person stays in the room with the sick person, the witches will be afraid to come in.  When one of them has been recognized in his right shape, he must die within seven days.  Often, when the friends of a traditional Cherokee know that there is no more hope, they will try to have one of these medicine people stay in the house and guard the body until it is buried.  Witches will not steal the hearts after burial. Other witches are usually jealous of Raven Mockers and are afraid to enter the same house with one.  When a Raven Mocker finally dies, the other witches sometimes take revenge by digging up the body and abusing it.  Traditional Cherokees also believe that after a person dies, his soul often continues to live as a ghost.  Ghosts are believed to have the ability to materialize where some people can see them, although some can not.

The fire ceremony and stomp dance

The fire was and is sacred to the Cherokee, and is a living memorial.  It has been with the people from the beginning of time"

 Fire is a gift of the Great Spirit, it separates men from animals.  It makes civilization possible.  Fire can only be lit by a priest, typically a member of the Ani-Wodi clan (priests, keepers of the flame).  The fire is traditionally made of Oak wood.

 If the fire is not made of Oak, or is not lit by a priest, only bad luck can follow.  Once the kindling is placed, the priest lights a twig and offers the smoke to the North, East, South, West, Upward to the heavens, Downward to the Mother Earth, and Inward to the center (self) for purity.

The fire is very sacred to traditional Cherokees.  It is built at the bottom of a pit below the ground, and burns constantly.  It is believed by traditional Cherokees that soon after creation of the Cherokee people, the Creator left his throne in Heaven and visited the earth.  He chose four Cherokee men who were strong, healthy, good and true, and believed with all of their heart in the Creator.  They were each given a name:  Red, Blue, Black and Yellow.  Each was given a wooden stick that was very straight, and was told to place one end of the stick on a surface that would not burn.  He said to place the other end in their hands, and start this material that would not burn to magically burn. . . by giving the sticks a circular, rotating motion.  

When this was done, and all the sticks were burning, they were told to go to the center of the cross, and there the four would start one singular fire.  This fire would burn for all time, and be the Sacred Fire.  The fire was started with the instructions and help of the Creator, and is maintained by the Ani-Wodi.  The Sacred Fire has been held since that time by the Cherokee, and is kept alive by the Chief, Assistant Chief, Firekeeper, and Assistant Firekeepers of the Ground.

A firekeeper (Ani -Wodi) and his assistant begins early dawn starting the official sacred fire.  He begins with small slivers of wood, inner most part of an oak tree called the sponge, flint and some rock to trigger a spark.  A medicine fire is also built where a small piece of meat is then thrown in and pipes are lit from the fire and a prayer follows.  The firekeeper does his job so well that he doesn't have to come back until later in the day.

 Sunrise:  The men sit around talking about political issues and the women prepare a meal for the day which consists of traditional and modern food.

 Later in the afternoon:  Sermons are held in the Cherokee language.  The sermon includes telling all to love all mankind.

 After the sermon, a stickball game (A-ne-jo-di) is played--an ancient Cherokee tradition that resembles the American lacrosse.

At sundown, the sermons continue.  The Chief brings out the traditional pipe, and fills it with tobacco.  He lights it with a coal from the Sacred Fire, and takes seven puffs.  The Medicine Man from each clan, beginning with the Aniwaya, the Wolf clan, takes seven puffs from the pipe and passes it on .  The chief, medicine men and elders hold a meeting and then issue the call for the first dance, then the second call.  The first dance is by invitation, tribal elders, elders, medicine men and clan heads.

 The members gather to visit, feast and dance far into the night.  It is a holy place to worship God.  No littering,  liquor and rowdy behavior.  Rules are written in the Cherokee language and posted on a board hung up on a tree.  Stomp Dance participants include a leader, assistants and one or more "shell-shaker girls" who wear leg rattles traditionally made out of turtle shells filled with pebbles.   The ceremonial observance involves sacrificing meat to the sacred fire at the center of the grounds, taking medicine and going to water or river for ritual cleansing. The shakers provide rhythmic accompaniment while dancing around the fire, and a dance cannot begin without the shakers. The Stomp is a traditional dance that follows a strict order of preparation and execution. At dawn, is the sacred fire ceremony, followed by a traditional meal and reading of the Keetoowah bible, which is made of woven shells. A Cherokee ball game is played, which is the origin of American La-Crosse. More readings from the Keetoowah bible until after sun-down, where the main theme is universal peace and love.

The sacred pipe is lit and each clan member takes 7 puffs, to commemorate the seven sacred directions, and passes it to his neighbor. Then there is a meeting of Chief and tribal elders that call for the Stomp Dance to begin. The earliest record of Stomp Grounds takes us back to the Mound Building, or Mississippian Period.  During this period, one of the mounds was used as a ceremonial gathering place. When the people ceased to use the mounds for ceremonial purposes, they brought the square shaped ceremonial grounds with them. The dance grounds are carefully prepared, a large flat area, traditionally sunken, with seating arranged on all 4 sides. Around the Stomp Grounds are arranged seven arbors, one for each clan; Wolf (a-ni-wa-ya), Wild Potato (a-ni-go-ta-ge-wi) also known as the Bear Clan, Paint (a-ni-wo-di), Bird Clan (a-ni-tsi-ss-gwa), Long Hair (a-ni-gi-lo-hi) also known as Twister or Wind then the Blind Savannah as known as Blue (a-ni-sa-ho-ni). The members of each clan are related through their mothers.

The people prepare themselves with cleansing rituals, ?going to water? and taking traditional medicines to purify the body and spirit. This is a rededication to their way of life, Cherokee society, their clan, and the Great Spirit.

The first round is from a selected group of people, the men start to sing, and the call is given for the women wearing the hells to enter the square, the song leader dances in front, followed by the lead shaker, who wears leg-rattles, some made of shells, some made of small turtle shells filled with stones.  Behind them come the rest of the singers and shakers, these followed by everyone else. The dance goes around the Fire in a counterclockwise direction, with the heart and left hand toward the sacred fire, everyone following in the steps of the person in front of them, forming a spiral.  

This is a slow shuffling stomp of the feet, one after the other. Stomp right, stomp left, stomp right, stomp left.  The sight and the sound reaches down deep into your soul and stirs something, both ancient and timeless. They dance until they are tired and rejoin the dance when they are rested.

A series of wampum belts serve to record and ?read? the traditional beliefs and stories.  The belts are very old, and are made of wampum beads sewn together with a form of seaweed from old Mexico.  The wampum belts are shown only on very sacred occasions.  The history of the belts relate that many years ago, the tribe was preparing to go to war.  The medicine men foresaw which would survive, and cut the original wampum belt into seven pieces.  After the war, the belts were scattered, and the last one was recovered by Redbird Smith in the very early 1900?s.

 Today, there are over 200,000 Cherokee tribal members.  Although some have chosen to worship through other religious denominations (Baptist, Methodist, etc.), many continue to worship at regular Stomp Dances and are members of one of the several Grounds in Cherokee Nation.  Each ground has its own unique protocol and differences, but the general worship is similar with the same intention.

The Keetoowah's bible is not written on paper.  The words are woven into seven wampum belts which are shown only in rare occasions.  The belts are very old, and are made of pearls and shell beads, woven with seaweed fibers from the Gulf of Mexico.  The history behind the belt is that many years ago, the tribe was preparing to go on to war with another tribe, when the medicine men foresaw which would survive, and cut the original wampum belt into seven pieces, giving one to each warrior.  After the war, the belts were scattered, some being hidden and disappearing, the last one was recovered by Redbird Smith around 80 years ago.

Picture and following text extracted from "Myths of the Cherokee", by James Mooney's

he Wolf Clan is the largest clan and the most prominent clan, providing most of  the war chiefs. The wolf clan are keepers of the wolf and the only clan who could kill a wolf.

The Clan color of the Ani-Wahya is Red

The Blue or Panther Clan made blue medicine from a special blue plant to keep our children well. The were also known as the Wildcat Clan. 

The Clan color for the Ani-Sahoni is Blue

The Long Hair Clan are also known as Twister Clan, Hair Hanging Down Clan or Wind Clan. Those belonging to this Clan wore their hair in elaborate hairdos, walked in a proud and vain manner twisting their shoulders. Peace chiefs are usually from this clan and wore a white feather robe. 

The Clan color for the Ani-Gilohi is Yellow

The Bird Clan are the keepers of the birds and they are our messengers.  This clan was skilled in using blowguns and snares for bird hunting.  

The Clan color for the Ani-Tsisqua is Purple

The Deer Clan are the keepers and hunters of the Deer, and are known as fast runners.

The Clan color for the Ani-Kawi is Brown

The Wild Potato Clan are also known as the Bear Clan, Raccoon Clan or Blind Savannah Clan. They were known to gather the wild potato plants in swamps along streams to make flour or bread for food. 

The Clan color for the Ani-Gatogewi is Green

Paint Clan - War Paint Clan - Ani Wo-di is the clan of the Shaman (Di-da Ih-ne-se Is-gi), Sorcerers, Medicine Men, and Priests.  This is the smallest and most secretive clan.  They are the ?Keepers of the Sacred Flame? (Ka-ie-la At-si-la Hi-ne-yu) the soul of the Cherokees.  When the Cherokees wage war, the Priest brings along several sacred objects, medicinal herbs, and a coal from the Sacred Fire.  They are the only ones that are allowed to make a special red paint and dye that are used for warfare and ceremonial purposed. The Clan color for the Ani-Wodi is White.

 The Ani-Wodi keep magical or sacred crystals of ultra-pure quartz rods in a special pouch of otter or deer skin, tied around their necks.  The crystals are only used to determine guilt in very tough murder cases.  The Chief, the Priests the accused parties, and the victim?s family assemble in the tribal lodge.  The victim and his spokesman deliver their case which is rebutted by the accused.  The Chief acts as Judge, and there is no jury.  If the case cannot be settled quickly, the priest is called upon for a ?judgment? ceremony.  The group is kept in the main lodge overnight, arguing the merits of the case until dawn.  In the morning, before dawn, the Priest goes into the forest and prays for guidance.  He returns to the lodge before the sun rises and places the crystals in the open doorway facing the rising sun.  When the sun rays strike the crystals, they emit beams of light that travel from the roof down to the assembled participants.  The rays of light from the crystals will illuminate the face of the guilty party.  The person chosen by the crystals must leave the village and the territory by sundown.  This is the grace period allowed before the ?hunt? begins.  Then the Chief selects a member of the victim?s clan to claim revenge, to hunt down the murderer and kill him.

Ceremonial pipes

Ceremonial Pipes were used anytime the Cherokee had a difficult decision and wished to sanctify the proceedings or ask guidance from the Great Spirit.  The pipe heads were carved from stone in the shape of animals representing the clans.  The shafts were formed by hollowing out the center of a small branch with a hot ember on the end of a long stick, or the branches were split, the inner core scraped out, and the two halves glued together.  The pipes were filled with native tobacco and aromatic herbs, lit from the Sacred Fire, offered to the Seven Sacred Directions, and passed around the council circle.  The belief was that once you had taken a puff from the Ceremonial Pipe, your heart would speak true

The booger dance

There are many different explanations for the origin and purpose of the Booger Dance. In practice, as part of the Corn Festival, the young men would dress up with masks to poke fun at politicians, scare young children into behaving properly, and to have some fun with the girls.  As the dance got into ?full swing? it would typically degenerate into the young men wearing the masks, chasing the young women and shaking their symbolic phallic symbols at them.  The young women would run squealing in mock terror into the woods, with the Booger Man close behind.  Since the women ruled the society, It was not common practice for the girls to choose their mate, and ?ambush? him as he neared the edge of the woods. In other cases, the girls would join in the Booger Dance and entice the Booger Man . Then the girl would lead him away into the woods to a carefully prepared spot, to claim her prize.

The Booger-Dance was called the Ghost Dance by the whites, and they were offended by the political caricatures.  After the Trail of Tears Death-March, the Ghost dance was banned for nearly 100 years. It was still performed in private, but if the participants were caught, they were sent to prison.

As you can see there are several different opinions on the origin and purpose, and the web-page associated with each is included for your further study.

Watch out  !!! Or the Booger Man will get you !!! in more ways than one? }

The Cherokee held the Booger Dance, associated with ghosts, which was performed as part of the winter ceremonies. These Booger Masks were affiliated with ghosts and spirits, and the performance during the winter months meant that the dance of the ghosts could not affect the growing vegetation and crops of the community. (Mardi Grass masks website )

Traditionally the Cherokees dance to ensure individual health and social welfare. These dances, performed by volunteers, were usually symbolic, were usually performed to weaken harmful powers -- to "scare away" the evil spirits -- and were a combination of dramatic art, protective medicine rites, historical documentary and prophecy. In the Booger or "Strong in magic" dances, the dancers wore masks of exaggerated human features made out of wood, colored brightly, and decorated with fur and feathers. They usually wore sheets or quilts around their shoulders. "Cherokee Booger Dancers" depicts four of the more common booger dance characters. It demonstrates their interactions and the precarious balance of all men mixing and living together. (Wolf's heart lodge)

The Booger Dance, interpreted as a ritual dramatization of Cherokee-white relations. It acts out a basic tension between old men and young men in which each fears and desires the power of the other, yet neither can exist alone. In such a context, the temporary disruption of the traditional harmonious order caused by the intrusion and rowdy behavior of the boogers serves to emphasize the need to return to normality and to control anti-social forces. Aboriginal Cherokee mythology and ceremonialism present a number of symbolic and ritual associations between the aged and certain animals. Among the birds, the eagle was considered sacred and associated with the most wise beloved man, the Uku, or town chief. While the eagle was symbolic of victory, peace, and the White Chief, the raven was unmistakably associated with the War Chief, whose native title means precisely The Raven. This bird is also associated with witches and conjuring. Older Eastern Cherokee openly admit that witches are generally old. Like the raven, the owl is also associated with old people and, more specifically, with witches, but this is not always the case. In fact, the ancient fire can also take on the appearance of an owl in order to detect the presence of witches and defend the people from their attacks. There seems to be an overall positive connection between the animal world and the aged. This positive relationship is often reflected in tribal mythology wherein animals are often featured as helpers, assistants, and even avengers for the aged. ( Hako magazine )

The ballgame

The old ones tell us that one time, the animals challenged the birds to a great ballgame, and the birds accepted.  The leaders of each made the plans and set the date, and when the time came, both parties met at the place for the ball dance.  The animals met on a  nice smooth grassy area near the river, and the birds perched in the treetops overlooking the animals.  The captain of the animal team was Yona, the bear, and he was strong and heavy, and could take care of anyone who got in his way.  All along the way to the ballgame, he was showing his strength by tossing logs and boulders into the air.  He boasted of what he would do to the birds at the ballgame.  Dagasi, the terrapin, was a huge terrapin, and his shell was so hard, not even the heaviest blow to him would hurt.  He kept standing on his hind legs and then dropping to the ground, bragging that this is what he would do at the ballgame.  He would crush any bird that tried to take the ball from him.  There was also Awi, the deer, who could easily outrun any and every animal.  They thought they had a great team. 

The birds had Wohali, the eagle, as their captain.  Tawodi, the hawk, and other strong birds were on their side.  Although they were swift and strong, they were still a little afraid of the animals.  After the dance, they were all pruning their feathers while perched in the trees, and waited for the captain to give the word.  All of a sudden, here came two little things hardly bigger than field mice, and they climbed up the tree where Wohali, the bird captain, was sitting.  They asked to join in the game.  The captain looked at them, and seeing that they were four-legged, asked why they didn?t go down to the animal team.  They said they had, but the animals laughed at them, and made fun of them, because they were so small.  Wohali felt sorry for them, and wanted to take them. 

But they had no wings.  Wohali, Tawodi, and the others consulted, and finally decided to make some wings for the little ones.  They tried for a very long time to think of a solution, when finally someone thought about the drum they had used in the dance.  The head was made of ground-hog skin, and maybe they could take off a corner of it and make some wings.  They took two pieces from the drum head and cut them into shape for wings, and stretched them with cane splints and fastened them to the front legs of one of the little animals.  

This is how Tlameha, the bat, came to be. 

They threw the ball to him and told him to catch it.  He dodged and circled about, and always kept the ball in the air and never let it hit the ground.  The birds soon felt that he would be one of their best players. 

Now they figured they better fix the other poor animal, but they had no more leather to make wings.  Somebody thought of stretching his skin, the way the leather had been stretched on the drum.  Two large birds took hold from each side of him with their strong beaks, and pulled at his fur for several minutes.  They managed to stretch the skin between his front and back legs, until they had Tewa, the flying squirrel.  To see how well he could play, the captain threw the ball up in the air, and Tewa leaped off the limb, caught it in his teeth, and carried it through the air until he reached another tree, far, far away. 

When everyone was ready, the signal was given and the game began.  Almost at the very first, Tewa caught the ball and carried it to a tree, from which he threw it to the other birds.  They kept it in the air for a very long time, but it finally dropped.  Yona rushed to grab it, but Tlutlu, the martin, darted after it and threw it to Tlameha.  By his dodging and circling, he kept it out of the way of even Awi, until he finally threw it to the pole and won the game for the birds. 

Yona and Dagasi, who had bragged about how good they were and what they would do to the birds, never even got a chance to play.  For saving the ball when it dropped, they gave Tlutlu a beautiful gourd in which he could build his nest.  Today, he still has it.

Origin of the word "Cherokee": Most of their neighbors called the Cherokees "Uplanders" or "Mountaineers", and the Cherokees referred to themselves as "the Real People" or "the Principal People", which in their language is Ani-yun'wiya' . But the Choctaw called them "Cave Dwellers" (choluk or chiluk).  This was rendered phonetically by the Portuguese as "Chalaque", by the French as "Cheraqui" and by the English as "Cherokee". As used among themselves, the form is "Tsalagi".

The following information is being hotly debated in learned circles all over the world.  Many self centered egotistical ?learned men? have pet theories that prohibit the introduction of new, radical data that may cast doubt on their reputations.  So they stick their collective heads in the sand and ignore any data that doesn?t fit their world-view.  I have studied Native American archaeology for 25 years with an open mind.  I may be slightly biased, as I dearly love the theory that Europeans are the direct descendants of Native Americans.  I began this article as a pure science article, but upon finding so much ?misinformation? in the Politically Correct ?official? websites, I draw my own conclusions from the available data.

Laguna Man 400,000 - 200,000 BP

 The Earliest known humans in America have been classified as ?Laguna Man? (Forbidden Archaeology).  Ancient human remains were found in the hills surrounding Laguna, California, during a mud-slide in 1976.  These skeletal remains have been dated by amino-acid-racemization to be between 200,000 to 400,000 BP (Before Present).  Rock structures have been located beneath the sands of the Mojave Desert nearby, which may be associated with Laguna Man.  Carbon dating techniques were inadequate for this study, as carbon dating is only able to determine up to 50,000 years of carbon decay.

 Laguna Man is believed to have crossed the Great Land Bridge (Beringia) during the Wisconsin period of the last Ice Age, and migrated south.  As the climate shifted, and game animals changed their feeding patterns, they moved from the high hills to the ocean shores of California.  Similar skeletal remains (skulls and tooth patterns) have been found in northern China, indicating that these people were genetically related.  The remains in China are related to reindeer hunting and cooking, as charred bones have been found in the associated deposits.  These bones are typically charred on the ends, which normally occurs when a leg of meat is roasted on a fire.  The Chinese caves in which these remains were found are located near Peking in the ?Sacred Mountain? of  Tio-ko Tien.

 The stone structure remains in the Mojave Desert have blackened stones around an apparent ?fire pit? or hearth, indicating the earliest use of fire in the New Word.  Skeletal remains have not yet been found in this area, associated with this site.  But, with carbon dating, the charcoal scrapings have been determined to be older than 50,000 years.  As the Mojave Desert has been classified as an ecologically sensitive area, I doubt that they will ever be given the chance to continue their digging.  Sorry if I burst your ?bubble?, but I was studying archaeology at Cal Tech when these discoveries were made.

Clovis Man 200,000 - 100,000 BP

 The next oldest human habitation of America has been found in Clovis, New Mexico.  Charcoal samples associated with this site are also older than 50,000 years BP. Since Clovis is in close proximity to Sandia, NM, these people have been dubbed ?Clovis Man? or ?Sandia Man?.    Archaeologist have discovered a cave site near Clovis, that has been partially excavated, and shows the development of stone tools from the crude three-bladed ?axes? of Neanderthal style, to the ?modern? highly developed ?Clovis Point?.  To date, this is the only site in the world that shows a logical progression of the art of stone tools from the ancient to the modern ?mousterian? tool kit that is associated with all ?Crow Magnon? or Proto-European sites found in the rest of the world.  This site is the ?Mother Lode? for stone tool development.

Politically Correct archaeologists are focusing on the Clovis Point which was developed somewhere between 16,000 - 14,000 years BP.  They are completely ignoring the far older remains in the lower level of the cave, as the older material might poke a hole in some important archaeologist?s pet theory.  The excavation focuses on the floor of a cave that has seen continuous human habitation for 40,000 years or more.  The uppermost layer is littered with ?modern? Clovis Points.  The next lower layer has an ?older? style that is technically the ?father? of the Clovis design.  This pattern is repeated in several more layers, showing an unbroken chain of technological development from the oldest Flaked Stone Ax on the lower layer, to the ?modern? Clovis Point in the upper layer.

How old is the oldest layer ???  European Neanderthal ?Cave Men? were using the same design of flaked stone ax 67,000 years BP.  Carbon dating will not reach that far into the past.  The scientists must find a sufficient quantity of bone (animal or human) that can be subjected to amino-acid-racimization.  Another branch of archaeology studies the rock of the cave, and the assumed weather patterns, to determine how rapidly the roof flakes off onto the floor each year.  Then they perform a SWAG (scientific wild ass guess), and publish the results.

Adjacent to this site, and as far away as 5,000 miles, Woolly Mammoth skeletons have been found with Clovis points wedged firmly between the bones.  These people were hunting mammoths with ?high tech? spears, when the Neanderthals were still driving animals over cliffs and clubbing them to death.  The ?Mousterian? tool kits have been found from Clovis, NM, north through the coastal plains, across Alaska, and into Siberia.  From there, these people spread out throughout Asia, and eventually, into Europe.  There is no evidence that they ?hunted? the Neanderthal or engaged them in warfare, it is more likely that they simply out-competed them for the available resources.  So far, the European archaeologists have found crude (two and three flaked) Neanderthal stone axes and the highly refined Mousterian stone tools, but nothing even hinting at the development from the older form to the newer more refined tools.

Land Bridge

 During the period from 65,000 to 45,000 years BP, the Ice Age had locked up so much of the worlds water, that ocean levels had dropped as much as 500 feet below what they are today.  This vast receding of the oceans exposed large sections of land that are currently under water.  The resultant ?Land Bridge? was over 1,000 miles wide (north to south).  This Land Bridge joined the peninsulas of Siberia and Alaska.  The northern reaches of the new ?continent? were exposed to the glaciers which provided the plants and water for most of the animal species, and the southern coast was warmed by the Japanese Current.  The Land Bridge was not a one-way street.  Animal herds migrated, and people followed the herds in both directions.  When the ice finally melted, the mammoth hunters were mostly in Siberia, and the caribou hunters were mostly in Alaska, with the fishermen on both sides of the Bering Strait.

Most authorities agree that the Land Bridge (Beringia) was partly above water as late as 16,000 to 14,000 years BP.  During the period after 45,000 years BP, the climate was very cold and very dry, unable to support vegetation beyond widely separated clumps of tundra grass, and not much of that.  Imagine the preparations for a walking trip across a 2,000 mile wide tundra, not to mention the ?near tundra? conditions of Siberia and Alaska at that time.  You would have to pack enough food and water for nearly a year, and walk constantly for nearly 6 months.  Animals could feed on the grasses, and meat eaters could feed on the animals, but with the climate so dry, there would have been no water for the animals.  Only at the time when Beringia was at its widest (65,000 - 45,000 BP), could the climate have supported enough game and water for such an extended journey.

Adaptation

The Alaskan ?natives? soon lost their stone tool technology as the ground is covered with ice and snow for much of the year, so they reverted to using ?older? bone technology for tools and weapons.  While harvesting whales and seals, they invented a unique ?toggle? barb on their spears which developed into the harpoon.  With the lack of wood for construction or fuel, they turned to whale and fish oil for heat and light, and discovered that shelters could be constructed from blocks of ice.  The dome-shape of the igloo is uniquely suited to the weather conditions where wind velocities can be as high as 75 miles per hour for several days.  This is a good example of how humans can adapt and utilize available materials and animals for their survival.

Immigration Patterns

According to Linguistic Anthropologists, immigration into America was done in several ?waves? over a period of 10,000 to 20,000 years.  The first group, sharing a similar language, came across the Land Bridge, through Canada, into America, and spread out as resources and population pressures demanded.  The next ?wave? of  immigrants followed the same path, but found the land thinly populated.  This second wave pushed the first wave outward toward the coastal areas.  This process was repeated several more times over the next 10,000 to 15,000 years, resulting in concentric ?rings? of language groups.  The newest arrivals tended to occupy the center of the land mass, and the earliest arrivals tend to be concentrated in the coastal areas.  The first wave of immigrants came to this land about 65,000 BP when the Land Bridge was first opened, and the most recent wave arrived about 45,000 BP when the Land Bridge was finally closed.

In the early years of the Wisconsin Ice Age, Most of Canada and a large portion of America were covered with a massive glacier.  This left open a marginal strip of land (50 to 100 miles wide) on the ocean side of the Pacific Cascades, as a migration route.  As the millennium passed, and the ice melted, the glaciers shrank toward the center of Canada and the Ancient Freeway was widened.  Theory has it that the early humans followed the warmer ?coastal? or Southern route on Breingia.  Since most of this ?continent? are now submerged, most of the traces of human habitation are waiting patiently between 300 - 500 feet below the ocean.  Deep core-samples from this region have revealed fragments of worked stone and bone, similar to the Clovis technique.

Earliest Cherokee settlements

It looks like the Cherokee first settled in southeastern North American between A.D. 1000 and 1500, probably around 1300. The 240 period from then until de Soto made contact with the tribe in 1540 might be described as a formative one, during which the Cherokees established themselves in their new home an began to shape their civilization.

The view of the current scholars began its evolution in 1823, when John Haywood published the first theory of Cherokee origins, and concluded that two nations with diverse cultures had in the past merged to from the Cherokee tribe. The first of these groups built mounds, erected fortifications, constructed wells with adobe-brick walls, worshipped idols, performed human sacrifices, used seven as their most sacred number, and ruled themselves by autocratic princes. Their place of origin was southern Asia, and their culture was linked to that of ancient Hebrews and Hindus. When they migrated to North American, they settled in the southeastern area dominated by the Natchez tribe. Later, a second tribe, democratic in organization and with a strong military came from northeast Asia, took control of eastern Tennessee and gradually merged with the first group, to form the Cherokee tribe that existed when the first whiter arrived in A.D. 1540.

Haywood's' ideas has been rejected, and the currently accepted view is that similarities of language, warlike spirit, common traditions and the use of the Iroquois unmatched arrow point and grooveless ax indicate that Cherokees were once part of the Great lakes Iroquoian family. Then, some form of discord caused the Cherokees to separate themselves from the other Iroquoians, and to migrate southward through what are today known as Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Finally, the Cherokees found a suitable new home, and laid clam to a vast wilderness empire. The limits of this domain can be established by drawing a line that begins fifty miles north of present Charleston, South Carolina, and runs northward along the Kanawha River to the Ohio River. From there, it follows the Ohio to Tennessee River turns southward for a hundred miles into northern Alabama, and finally goes eastward to the starting point, passing slightly north of Atlanta, Georgia.

The Cherokees divided into four regional settlements: the eastern, Lower settlements ( Southern Piedmont Province ), central which were the heartland of the tribe, composed by the Kituhwa (Middle) and Valley settlements ( Blue Ridge province, Great Smoky Mountains included) and the Overhill or Tennessee settlements ( north and west in Appalachian Great Valley Province ).

No one knows how large the Cherokee tribe was when it migrated, but it was large compared with most other tribes.  Guesses are that in 1650 the population was 22,000.

Major Culture Phases

In researching Appalachian archeology, experts have compiled  a list of seven distinctive phases:

Qualla phase (ca. A.D. 1500 to historic times)

Pisgah phase (ca. A.D. 1000 to 1500)

Connestee phase (ca A.D. 100 or 200 to 1000)

Pigeon phase (ca 200 B.C. to A.D. 100)

Swannanoa phase (ca 750 to 150 B.C.)

Savannah River phase ( ca 2500 to 750 B.C.)

Morrow Mountain phase (ca. 4300 to 2500 B.C.)

Only two of these periods are associated with Cherokee, Pisgah and Qualla.

Pisgah phases sites have been found throughout an area of about 14,000 square miles in the South Appalachian Province. In its earliest years, many of these sites were occupied for relatively short periods of time, but in the interior of the region, sites were occupied throughout the phase. Settlements sites varied in size form a quarter of an acre to six acres. This phase is thought to represent in the Appalachian summit area the development period pf a primarily Mississippian cultural pattern. When we seek an establishment date for the Cherokee, it is interesting that while Pisgah sites discovered thus fat contain permanent houses, palisades and platform mounds, they are not identical to the later Cherokee towns and villages to the south and west. In other words, for some portion of the Pisgah phase we are not yet dealing with actual Cherokee culture. The Garden Creek site was an important center in its day, but it does not compare in size and complexity with the great Cherokee centers in the Tennessee Valley.

Anthropologist believe that the Qualla phase of A.D. 1500 to historic times, represents the spiritual and material culture of the Cherokees as it was until it was replaced by the Euro-American material and economics culture in the 19th century.

The information we have about ancient Cherokee life makes it clear that the people had an specially dynamic culture whose composition was the result of adventuring, diverse contacts, and mergers. This truth gives us our first hint about a Cherokee trait of some consequences in their national evolution, which was adaptability that welcomed and made use of the new things and ways they encountered.

Some of the information on this page, as well as the wonderful illustrations have been extracted from the book "The Cherokee People, The Story of the Cherokee from Earliest Origins to Contemporary Times" by Thomas E. Mails. It is a magnificent piece of historical reconstruction, extensively and beautifully illustrated, published by Marlowe & Company, NY. If you want to learn everything about the Cherokee culture, I recommend you to get this book.

General aspects

The Cherokees are a matrilineal society.  The home, family, children, inheritance, family ties, and clan membership are under the absolute control of the women.  The husband is just a convenience to supply meat and father the children.  Other than this, he has no say in the matter, and that is the final answer.  All children belong to the mother, and clan lineage is passed through the mother, the mother of the bride, the bride, and the bride?s brother are all of the same clan.  All children of this union will be members of the bride?s clan.  They are ?adopting? the groom into the clan.  If he is ?rejected?, the children will still be members of the bride?s clan. In the Cherokee Marriage Ceremony, the groom  brings an offering of meat to the bride?s family, showing that he is a good hunter and promising to help support them.  The bride brings offerings of food, showing that she can be a good home maker.  Then they join together under the ceremonial blanket, showing mutual support in the building of a family.

A woman got her name, and her Clan from her female elders.  She keeps this name for life, even if she is baptized with an Anglo name or married.  A boy is given a soft cuddly name by his mother, when he becomes a man, his father and uncles will give him a new name.  When he is matured and ready to become a warrior, he goes on a vision quest.  The medicine man then gives the man a new name, related to his vision quest, that he will use for life.  The Scotsmen, English, Germans that married into the Cherokees, began the Anglo naming tradition for their children.  The Cherokee ignored this tradition completely, as they were not concerned about cousins intermarrying, as they had their own traditions that a man could not marry a woman from his mother?s clan.  The young men all had to wait until the Festival of The Corn to find a bride.  This is an annual event that brings participants from all over the Nation for several weeks.  This gives the people an opportunity to visit married relatives, exchange stories, trade goods, participate in sports and dances, and to find prospective mates.

 After the couple was married, the man moved into his wife?s village and became her hunter.  His wife would weave him a Marriage Belt  of river-read fibers, dyed red and black, woven in a pattern of her own choosing.  This belt served much the same as a wedding ring in modern society.  It not only marked him as ?taken?, but the design was the identification mark of his wife.  If he committed unforgivable ?errors? he would find his clothing and belongings piled in the yard when he returned home.  This form of ?divorce? was final.  Cherokee men were able to keep several wives.  The other wives were usually chosen by the first wife, as her husbands ability to hunt exceeded the needs of his family.  The other wives were usually widowed sisters or other female clan members.  Some powerful chiefs and very wealthy Cherokees violated this rule, to their own peril.

Weapons

From about 10,000 to 500 years ago, the Native Americans did not have the Bow and Arrow.  Instead, they used a Short Spear, about 3 to 4 feet long, made from river reed (similar to Bamboo or Cat Tail) trimmed with two feathers, and tipped with a small stone or bone point (Projectile Points).  The spear was usually thrown with the aid of a Atlatl or throwing-stick, to increase the speed and range.  This was the primary weapon for hunting and war, as the Bow was not invented (introduced) until about the arrival of the Spaniards in the 1500?s.  The Spanish troops learned that the short spear, thrown with an Atlatl, was the only weapon (except a cross bow) that could pierce their body armor.  The average warrior could fire 5 spears to  1 Spanish musket shot.

Many archaeologists agree that the Atlatl, or spear thrower, has been discovered in European deposits that date back to 30,000 BP.  Since this same weapon system has been discovered in America, they glibly state that the weapon was introduced into America much later (about 8,000 - 10,000 years BP).  The problem is that there was no way for people to continue to cross the land bridge to bring this new weapon to the people of America, as the Land Bridge was underwater at that time.  It is entirely possible that Sandia Man may have developed the Atlatl to give them more range and power for their spears in order to successfully hunt the mammoth.  As the glaciers receded North, the hunters followed, all the way back to Asia, taking their better tools, weapons, and hunting techniques with them.

Other similarities in weapons and tools include the shape of the spear points, and the mounting technique (pitch).  This mounting technique for spear or arrow points was still in use in Europe until 5,000 years ago, but had long been replaced in America for the tip design that allowed tying the tip to the shaft with thin strips of raw skin.  This is understandable, as there was not many natural deposits of pitch (tar pits) available to the inhabitants of America.  Another problem for archaeologists is the type of stone ax used by many coastal Native Americans.  The size, shape, material, and manufacturing techniques are virtually identical to the types found in Europe and described as Celtic.

The Atlatl fell out of use in Asia and Europe when the Bow was developed several thousand years ago, probably in Greece or Egypt.  The bow was not in use in America until about the time of the arrival of Columbus.  When the invaders from Europe engaged the native in warfare, they were greeted by short spears, thrown with great accuracy and power from long distances.  The white invaders thought for a while that the natives were using a powerful long-bow, but the Atlatl had greater range, more power and accuracy than the muskets of the whites.  The average native warrior could throw five ?arrows? for each musket shot.

Projectile point designs varied widely as dictated by the material and their use.  Small points with no flutes were used for small game, medium points with flutes were used for hunting large game and for war, large points were used on large spears for large game (bears) and for war.  There does not appear to be one particular type of point design that was used exclusively by the Cherokee.  Virtually every type of stone point used in the US has been found somewhere in Cherokee Territory.  They were quite the ?techno? types of their time and would adopt a new design from another tribe, or create a design of their own for a special purpose.  The art of projectile point making (flint napping) almost became a lost art when the Europeans began trading small bits of iron.  The Cherokee were probably one of the first to make Iron Arrows.

The Atlatl shafts were usually made of Ash, Popular, or Hickory due to their spring-like qualities.  The shafts were usually equipped with a stone counter-weight which increased the power delivered to the throw.  Traditionally, Cherokees make their Bows from Hickory as it was readily available and has excellent spring qualities.  The bow-strings were made from braided bear hairs.  After a bow was made and tested, the grip was covered with leather, and a small feather was tied to the bow to act as a wind-sock.  More decorative bows were generally gifts to the chief and used for ceremonial purposes.

Cherokee Canoes were made from large hollowed-out tree trunks.  They had a flat square front with a gentle taper for beaching and a flat bottom.  They were wide enough for two men to sit side by side, and long enough to hold raiding party of about 20 men.  Depending on the depth of the river, they used poles or paddles for propulsion.  Most rivers in the Cherokee Nation were quite shallow, so poles were used when carrying freight, and paddles were used for speed when moving war parties. 

Cherokee carved bone, stone and wood into objects of art.  They had a lively trade with the Seminoles  and other coastal tribes for sea shells, particularly Conch shells and Clam shells.  They carved beautiful breast-plates (gorgets) from the wall of the Conch and Clam shells.  Earrings made of Sand Dollars and Scallop shells were common.  Necklaces were made of carved bone and wooden beads.  Some artists specialized in stone carvings of clan animal figurines used on Ceremonial Pipes and round stone balls used in a game called Marbles. 

Cherokee women made beautiful Baskets from river reeds.  Some were rigid for food gathering and storage, some were flexible for use as warrior?s packs.  Some of the baskets were made water-tight and used directly on the fire for cooking, or by dropping hot stones into the basket to make tea or soup.  Bowls were made from river clay and baked in an open fire.  They were made from contrasting layers and deeply incised to show the contrasting colors. Others were stamped with designs carved on ?stamping boards? made of wood and bone.   Corn was roasted in the husk, pounded or ground to a powder for bread and other dishes.  Other Recipes are listed below.  Whiskey and other ?strong drink? were unknown until the Scotsmen arrived in the early 1700?s. 

The Green Corn Festival or Ceremony is a Native American harvest celebration. Creek, Cherokee, Seminole, Yuchi, and Iroquois as well as other Native American tribes celebrate this ceremony on some manner.

The ceremony is typically held during the full moon when the first corn crop is ready to harvest. The exact date cannot be determined ahead of time; it's all up to the corn. It is a time of thanks and forgiveness. A thanksgiving for the crops and old grudges are forgiven. The ceremony lasts for several days. The holy man as a symbol of health, life, and spiritual power tends a sacred fire. The first few days, known as the Busk, people fast, cleanse themselves, and their homes. Men and women then drink an herbal concoction, the "Black Drink" that help cleanse and purify their bodies. Then the first corn harvest is tasted followed by dancing, singing, playing, and feasting. Many foods are included in the feast with an emphasis on corn: roast corn, corn tortillas, corn soup, corn bread?.

 A ball game is quite popular in which teams of boys and girls try to hit a target on a large pole, the original source of our lacrosse. The game varies, of course, from tribe to tribe.

Ball Games

A-ne-jo-di (Stickball)

The game resembles the modern European game of lacrosse, using ball sticks which are handmade from hickory.  A small ball, made of deer hair and hide, is tossed into the air by the medicine man.  The male players use  a pair of the sticks, and female players use the bare hands.  In earlier times, only the men with the greatest athletic ability played the game.  The game was oftentimes played to settle disputes, and the conjurer for each team often became as important to the team as the players themselves.

 Seven points are scored when the ball strikes a wooden fish on the top of a pole approximately 25 feet in height, and two points are awarded when the ball strikes the pole.

Sawǎnu'gǐ or Cherokee Ball Player, picture by James Mooney, from his book

"History, Myths and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees"

In earlier days, there would be a dance before the ballgame. The ballplayers were the participants of the dance, along with seven women dancers.  Each woman represented one of the clans.  Throughout the dance, the women would step on black beads which represented the players of the opposing team.  The conjurer had placed these black beads on a large flat rock.  Today, stickball is an important part of the days activities at ceremonial Stomp Grounds, being necessary to play before the Stomp Dance can ever begin. It is also a recreational sport at other times between community teams.  There are also intertribal teams made up of players from Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Yuchi, Natchez, and other area communities.

Di-ga-da-yo-s-di (Marbles)

Cherokee Marbles is a game of skill, still played in the form of tournaments.  Also a skill is the art of making the marbles themselves.  The marble game dates back to approximately 800 a.d., and is a complex game of skill and strategy played by adults on a five-hole outdoor course.

 Until the early part of the 20th century, players used marbles chipped from stone, smoothed into round marbles about the size of billiard balls.  Today, there are  still some traditional marble makers, but most tournaments utilize billiard balls for play.

 The game is played on a field approximately 100 feet long, where there are five holes about two inches in diameter, 10 to 12 yards apart, forming an L-shape.  Any number of  players may play, but each team must have an equal number.

 Each player uses on marble and must keep track of its location as well as the opposing players marbles.  The players toss the marbles at the holes with the object of advancing by landing in each hole in sequence and returning to the starting point.  Players must toss their marbles and knock the opposing players? out of the way in a prescribed manner.  The first team to complete the course is the winner.

Music

The traditional musical instruments of the Cherokee consist of :

The water drum which is a earthen pot or kettle with a skin stretched over the top of it. An inch or so of water or other liquid is placed inside before playing.

The River Cane flute, which in 1835 was reported to have been approximately one foot long, and had 6 holes.

Trumpets were sometimes made from buffalo horns, and sometimes from long neck gourds or the thigh bone of the crane. Conch shells were used in very early times.

Turtle shells are used for ceremonial rattles; a single rattle to be held in the hand for use by men, and turtle shell shackles worn on the legs of women. Sometimes the ceremoinial hand rattles are made of gourd, as well. (from the Cherokee Nation webpage )

A text by Charlie Orme:

Native American music is very unusual, far from conforming to the common stereotype in the minds of others. It exhibits an enormous amount of variety not commonly realized by most people. It plays a mainly functional role in their culture.

All Native American music is generally categorized in two ways: instrumentation and lyrical content. The melody of Cherokee Indian music is generally played with a flute. This flute is carved out of wood, and has a light, melodic sound that seems to float in the air. This gives the songs an interesting sound unique to Native American music. Part of this sound comes from the fact that Native American music uses a fascinating scale, known as the tonal (or Indian) scale. This scale sounds very odd because most people are used to the standard Ionian major scale, with the whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half step foundation and the do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti-do progression; but to the Cherokee people, it sounds perfectly normal, and the Ionian major scale sounds weird. Flute melodies may be sung, but harmony (two of the same, similar, or complementary melodic lines being sung or played simultaneously) and polyphony (two different melodic lines played or sung simultaneously) are almost unheard of.

Other Native American instruments include the Pow Wow drum, the rattle, flutes and flageolets, whistles, simple trumpets and/or reed instruments. Those most widespread are percussion instruments, including drums. Native American (including Cherokee) drums are made from animal skin stretched across a large gourd, and have a deep, rich sound not found in today's ordinary drum sets. The drums are very important; they provide the rhythmic foundation for Cherokee and all Native American music.

Among other percussion instruments, the idiophones are represented by rattles, musical rasps, sticks beaten together, beaten planks, rods, and slit drums. (An idiophone is an instrument whose sound is simply the vibration of its elastic constituent material, unmodified by any special tension; for example, a bell, gong, or rattle would be an idiophone, whereas a drum would not.) Membranophones (drums with skin heads) are also used commonly. Another important part of the Native Americans' music is the singing. Whether rhythmic chanting or high-pitched yodeling, this part of the music truly completes the song.

Lyrics

The lyrics of the Native Americans' music are in the local tribe's language, in this case Cherokee. The Cherokee language is very complex, and was first transcribed by Chief Sequoyah. The lyrics generally involve family songs and tribal ritual songs, although song texts may (and often do) consist entirely of meaningless syllables. They may also consist of or include archaic words or phrases and/or special phonetic changes. The music, for the most part, plays a functional role in Cherokee culture; it is used as a part of other activities and rituals. This can be seen in the fact that music is graded on its magical or spiritual power; if a song is well performed, it is referred to as "good" rather than beautiful. It can also be seen in the fact that men tend to predominate in composing, singing, and writing the lyrics for the songs; since men usually prevail in rituals and other cultural elements, it is only natural that men would be the ones singing the songs.

In conclusion, the music of the Cherokee Indians is unique, possessing a musical richness and emotional depth not often found in other music. It is very interesting to look into other cultures' music; looking into the music of the Cherokee gives an engaging glimpse of the culture.

Housing

Contrary to Hollywood myth, not all Native Americans lived in T-pees.  The Cherokees lived in ?stockades? constructed similar to a ?fort?, but without a gate.  They had overlapping fences at the entrance, forming a colonnade.  Inside, the main  building for religious and political meetings, was on a raised earth platform near the center of the village.  The individual families had homes made of logs, roofed with split cedar planks, the walls were sealed against the weather with grass and mud.  Most of the homes were single level, but the larger families had two-story houses.  The door opened into the hearth, or cooking area and there was a hole in the roof to allow smoke to escape.  This room served as the kitchen, dining room, family meeting room, visitor reception and entertainment area, for the telling of Traditional Stories.  The bedroom was adjacent to the main room and was equipped with bunk-beds.   The frames were made of poles tied together with raw-hide strips.  The frames for the lower beds were elevated a foot or so from the dirt floor, and laced with a type of rope made from woven grass or reeds.  Their mattresses consisted of bundles of soft river reeds, and their blankets were made of soft fur. The blankets of male children were mountain-lion skins, to transmit the kid the powers of acute smell, strength cunning and the female children were getting the skins of fawns or buffalo calves, shy and timorous. The furniture consisted in poplar wood stools, storage chests ( clapboards sewn to crossbars with wet stripes of buffalo rawhide ) and three foot-high beds, made of boards.  It can be assumed that the beds had canopy tops and curtains to keep out the cold and provide privacy. Women crafted handsome carpets of hempand they were painted with colored figures. 

The kitchen and bed room were separated with a large animal skin flap, or a curtain made from woven plant fibers for privacy.  The windows were covered with the same material, to keep out rain and cold.  Some houses had skin or woven cloth over the main door, others had a solid wooden door made of split cedar planks, hinged with leather.  The main difference between the Cherokee houses and the settlers log-cabins was the settlers had fire-places for cooking, with stone chimneys, and the Cherokee preferred to build a fire directly in the middle of the dirt floor.

Each house had a vegetable garden next to the house.  Corn was grown on the south side, as that area received the most sunlight.  Each family also helped in the communal village garden for foods that would be used in celebrations, community parties, and to help feed the elderly.  Herbs and fruit were gathered in the local woods by the women and children, while the men were hunting meat and fur.  The medicine man gathered medicinal herbs and materials for dyes and paint.  The elder women tended the small children, and the elder men made tools from stone, bone and wood.  River reeds had many uses, one type could be pounded and split so fine that they could be woven into soft cloth.  Other types of reeds were split and used for baskets.  Another type was either hollowed out for a blow-gun, or trimmed and shaped into a short spear, or arrows. Opposite the front door of each dwelling was a small sweat house. Inside this structure a fire was kept burning and residents sweated there to purify themselves for religious purposed and to cure diseases. There were separate social houses in each village for the women, and wives always retired there when male visitors arrived to see their husbands.

Each group of native Americans has a developed a unique style of housing, depending on their environment and the abundance of building materials.  The Plains people, who hunted buffalo, made portable shelters of buffalo skins, or what is now called TePee.  Fringe-plains people, who farmed the land and hunted smaller game, made circular or square houses by piling buffalo dung, like thin bricks, to form the walls.  Native Americans who lived in marginal forest areas made homes from weaving flexible branches together to form a structure like an upside-down basket.  The Anasazi, farmers who settled in the southwest, occupied large caves and built walls of sun-dried mud and grass, or adobe bricks.

The Cherokee, which occupied the heavy forests, built their square houses of logs, surrounded by a stockade of logs planted vertically in the ground.  The Cherokee settlements looked very much like a ?fort? or ?town? with several ?log cabins?, small gardens, fruit trees, and a central ?long house? on a raised mound for gatherings and decision making.  The Long House, or Council House was also used for religious functions, such as weddings and festivals.   One Cherokee town, in North Carolina, has been occupied continuously for about 14,000 years.  The native groups in the Pacific Northwest, who also live in thick forests, have similar ?log cabins?, a style supposedly introduced by the white settlers.

One unusual sample of stone housing has been found in New England.  It is constructed  over an excavated pit with flat stones forming the walls and roof.  This has been attributed to and early Viking settlement from about 1,500 to 1,200 years BP.  The Vikings either returned to Greenland, died out, or were absorbed into the local population, as were the Chinese settlers in the Pacific Northwest.  Dredging operations in Puget Sound, Washington, have discovered a Chinese ?Junk? sailing ship that is about 5,000 years old, and evidence of a Chinese settlement in Port Orchard, Washington. 

Winter hothouses: in the colder areas, the people of each town or village built large winter houses, whose walls and roof were designed to retain and reflect heat. They fixed to the ground a number of six feet posts, forming the basis of a circular wall. To these posts, they tied horizontal pieces of a though white oak, and interwoven vertically slimmer pieces of the same oak. In the middle of the house, forming a square, the builders set four large pine posts, notched on top to recei